N.A. Chowdhury, S.M. Gallagher, Q. Dai, J.S. Spangenberger
Argonne National Laboratory,
United States
Keywords: Battery-grade, Li2CO3, LiOH.H2O, Recycling, Lithium-ion batteries
Summary:
Rising demand for lithium in advanced energy technologies has elevated it to a critical material for U.S. economic competitiveness and energy security. The rapid growth in lithium-ion battery (LIB) manufacturing and deployment is expected to generate large volumes of production scrap and end-of-life (EOL) batteries in the coming years. Recycling these LIBs is critical for recovering battery-grade lithium salts and maintaining a reliable supply of key materials for future cell production. However, current commercial recycling routes, particularly pyrometallurgical processes, often recover lithium inefficiently, with substantial losses to slags or leach residues. At the same time, there is limited process-level information on the cost and energy performance of industrial-scale lithium recovery flowsheets. This study evaluates hydrometallurgical and hydro-pyrometallurgical processes for producing battery-grade lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) and lithium hydroxide monohydrate (LiOH·H2O) from EOL LIBs using EverBatt 2023, an Excel-based techno-economic and life-cycle analysis tool for battery recycling and supply chains. We define a consistent system boundary that includes pre-treatment, thermal or chemical conversion, impurity removal, and lithium salt production, tracking material and energy inputs (e.g., reagents, heat, electricity) and key process parameters for each unit operation. In addition, we compare these recycling-based pathways to representative production routes from virgin sources, including hard-rock ore and brine-based lithium extraction. Preliminary results indicate that, when the costs of upstream steps designed primarily to recover Ni, Co, and Mn are excluded, recycling can deliver lithium salts at an estimated 4–6 USD kg⁻¹. Among the pathways evaluated, Li2CO3 generally shows higher production costs than LiOH·H2O, driven by additional hydrometallurgical steps and higher reagent use. By investigating the state-of-the-art commercial lithium recycling practices, the study aims to provide valuable insights to optimize recycling processes, enhancing economic returns and reducing energy impacts. These findings aim to guide manufacturers, recyclers, and policymakers toward achieving strategic pathways to LIB recycling and advancing resource efficiency to strengthen the critical materials supply chain in the U.S.